IRB Number

25-0504-045

Date of Award

Winter 12-16-2025

Document Type

Dissertation

Degree Name

Doctor of Education (EdD)

First Advisor

Glenn Richard Penny, Ph.D.

Second Advisor

Seth Swary, Ph.D.

Abstract

The research problem for this study was that collegiate athletic trainers with children under 5 years old experience significant work-life conflict and negative mental health outcomes. The purpose of this study was to explore how collegiate ATs with young children describe their experiences of work-life conflict and to how these experiences relate to symptoms of anxiety and depression. Guided by interrole conflict theory and work-life conflict theory the study posed two research questions: (1) How do collegiate ATs with children under 5 describe their experiences of work-life conflict? (2) What is the relationship work-life conflict experiences on the symptoms of depression and anxiety in collegiate ATs who are parents under 5? Using a basic qualitative design, the research conducted semistructured Zoom interviews with 10 collegiate ATs with children under 5 and used thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes. Findings revealed that work-life conflict was pervasive and cyclical, intensifying during peak sports seasons. Participants described how time-based conflicts disrupted their family routines, strain-based conflicts reduced emotional availability at home, and behavior-based conflicts led professional habits to spillover. Participants described feelings of guilt, worry, irritability, and emotional detachment, with symptom intensity varying by division level, marital status, and access to support. Despite these challenges, participants identified coping strategies and supports that mitigated conflict. The findings suggest that work-life conflict among collegiate ATs is cyclical and structural, contributing to emotional strain and emphasizing the need for institutional policies that promote flexibility, mental health support, and sustainable workloads.

Cited References

Abdou, A., El-Amin, M., Mohammed, E., Alboray, H., Refai, A., Almakhayitah, M., Albohnayh, A., Abdulaziz, M., Almulla, M., Alsaqer, J., Mahmound, M., Elshazly, A., & Allam, S. (2024). Work stress, work-family conflict, and psychological distress among resort employees: A JD-R model and spillover theory perspectives. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsychg.2024.13261812024-60124-001

Abendroth, A. (2022). Transition to parenthood, flexible working, and time-based work-to-family conflicts: A gendered life course and organizational change perspectives. Journal of Family Research, 34(4), 1033–1055. https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-730

Al Maqbali, M., Al Sinani, M., & Al-Lenjawi, B. (2021). Prevalence of stress, depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbance among nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2020.110343

Alnazly, E., Allari, R., Alshareef, B., & Al-khair, F. (2023). Analyzing role overload, mental health, and quality of life among Jordanian female healthcare professionals: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Women’s Health, 15, 1917–1930. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJWH.S435857

Alshenqeeti, H. (2021). Interviewing as a data collection method: A critical review. Sciedu Press, 3(1), 39–45. https://doi.org/10.5430/elr.v3n1p39

Anvari, F., Efendic, E., Olsen, J., Arsian, R., Elson, M., & Schneider, I. (2023). Bias in self-reports: An initial elevation phenomenon. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 14(6), 727–737. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506221129160

Baas, M., Stramrood, C., Molenaar, J., Baar, P., Vanhommerig, J., & Pampus, M. (2024). Continuing the conversation: A cross-sectional study about the effects of work-related adverse events on the mental health of Dutch (resident) obstetrician-gynecologists (ObGyns). BMC Psychiatry, 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05678-3

Bilodeau, J., Quesnel-Vallee, A., & Poder, T. (2023). Work stressors, work-family conflict, parents’ depressive symptoms, and perceived parental concerns for their children’s mental health during COVID-19 in Canada: A cross-sectional analysis. BMC Public Health, 23. https://doi.org/10,1186/s12889-023-17037-0

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). Can I use a TA? Should I use a TA? Should I not use a TA? Comparing reflexive thematic analysis and other pattern-based qualitative analytic approaches. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 21(1), 37–47. https://doi.org/10.1002/capr.12360

Cavagnis, L., Russo, C., Danioni, F., & Barni, D. (2023). Promoting women’s well-being: A systematic review of protective factors for work-family conflict. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,20. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20216992

Caeli, K., Ray, L., & Mill, J. (2003). ‘Clear as mud’: Toward greater clarity in generic qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 2(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690300200201

Cairns, A., Singe, S., & Eason, C. (2022). Perceived stress as an indicator of work-family conflict and burnout among secondary school athletic trainers. International Journal of Athletic Therapy and Training, 28, 215–220. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijatt.2021-0112

Childs, T., Iachini, A., Reitmeier, M., Browne, T., DeHart, D., Bengel, A., & Haynesworth, M. (2024). Exploring social work practitioners’ perspectives on the contributors to burnout since the COVID-19 pandemic. Social Work, 69(2), 142–150. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swae005

Coker-Cranney, A., Watson, J. C., 2nd, Bernstein, M., Voelker, D. K., & Coakley, J. (2018). How far is too far? Understanding identity and overconformity in collegiate wrestlers. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 10(1), 92–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2017.1372798

De Sousa, C., Viseu, J., Pimenta, A., Vinagre, H., Ferreira, J., Matavelli, R., Jose, H., Romana, F., & Valentim, O. (2024). The effect of coping on the relationship between work-family conflict and stress, anxiety, and depression. Behavioral Science, 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14060478

DiSanti, J., Post, E., Eason, C., Root, H., & Abdenour, T. (2023). Athletic trainers’ psychosocial experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative research study. Journal of Athletic Training, 58(10), 902–911. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-0517.22

Du, J., Dong, L., Wang, T., Yuan, C., Fu, R., Zhang, L., Liu, B., Zhang, M., Yin, Y., Qin, J., Bouey, J., Zhao, M., & Li, X. (2020). Psychological symptoms among frontline healthcare workers during COVID-19 outbreak in Wuhan. General Hospital Psychiatry, 67, 144–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2020.03.011

Dursun, B. (2023). A qualitative research technique: Interview. Journal of Interdisciplinary Educational Research, 7(14), 100–113. https://doi.org/10.57135/jier.1245193

Eason, C., Singe, S., & Rynkiewicz, K. (2020). Work-family guilt of collegiate athletic trainers: A descriptive study. International Journal of Athletic Therapy and Training, 25, 190–196. https://doi.org/10.1123/jatt.2019-0001

Eason, C., Gilgallon, T., & Singe, S. (2022). Work-addiction risk in athletic trainers and its relationship to work-family conflict and burnout. Journal of Athletic Training, 57(3), 225–233. https://doi.org/10.4085/JAT0348-20

Eby, L., Casper, W., Lockwood, A., Bordeaux, C., & Brinley, A. (2021). Work and family research in IO/OB: Content analysis and review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 106(2), 188–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2003.11.003

Frank, E., Zhao, Z., Fang, Y., Rotenstein, L., Sen, S., & Guille, C. (2021). Experiences of work-family conflict and mental health symptoms by gender among physician parents during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of American Medical Association Network Open, 4(11), e2134315. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.34315

Goodman, A., & Howard, J. (2022). Mindfulness matters: Use and perceptions of mindfulness practices among athletic trainers. Journal of Athletic Training, 57(3), 264–274. https://doi.org/10.4085/698-20

Graham, M., Weale, V., Lambert, K., Kinsman, N., Stuckey, R., & Oakman, J. (2024). A longitudinal study on the impact of working from home during the COVID-19 pandemic: Self-rated general health, stress, and work-family and family-work conflict—are there gender and parental status differences? Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 66(12), 1030-1038. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000003237

Grasso, D., Lewin, M., Adams, B., & Lapidus, G. (2022). Pandemic-related experiences and stress among children’s hospital staff predict psychosocial risk. Journal of Healthcare Management, 67(2), 75–88. https://doi.org10.1097/JHM-D-21-00022

Greenhaus, J., & Beutell, N. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 76–88. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1985/4277352

Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods, 18(1), 59–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X05279903

Guest, G., Namey, E., & Chen, M. (2020). A simple method to assess and report thematic saturation in qualitative research. PLOS ONE, 15(5). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232076

Ho, H., Chui, O., & Chan, Y. (2022). When pandemic interferes with work: Psychological capital and mental health of social workers during COVID-19. Social Work, 67(4), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swac035

Jarrar, M., Ali, N., Sharhruddin, R., Al-Mugheed, Aldhmadi, B., Al-Bsheish, M., AlSyouf, A., Albaker, W., & Alumran, A. (2023). Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 16, 119–131. https://doi.org/10.2147/jmdh.5394583

Kahlke, R. M. (2014). Generic qualitative approaches: Pitfalls and benefits of Methodological Mixology. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 13(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940691401300119 

Kahn, R., Wolfe, D., Quinn, R., Snoek, J., & Rosenthal, R. (1964). Organizational Stress: Studies in Role Conflict and Ambiguity. John Wiley. 

Kim, H., Hong, Y., Lee, N., Park, J., Lee, K., Yun, J., & Lee, D. (2023). Working from home, work-life balance, and depression/anxiety among Korean workers in the COVID-19 pandemic period. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 65(2), 98–103. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000002726

Kucukkaya, B., & Sut, H. (2022). The relationship between Turkish women’s self-efficacy for managing work-family conflict and depression, anxiety, and stress during the COVID-19 pandemic: A web-based cross-sectional study. IOS Press, 1117–1124. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-220190

Kvale, S. (2007). Doing Interviews. Sage Publications. 

Lawson, K. M., Lee, S., & Maric, D. (2021). Not just work-to-family conflict, but how you react to it matters for physical and mental health. Work & Stress, 35(4), 327–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2021.1888821

Laza, R., Lustrea, A., Lazureanu, V., Marinescu, A., Nicolescu, N., Herlo, A., Cut, T., Porosmicu, T., Papava, I., Romosan, R., Romosan, A., Bondrescu, M., Dimeny C., Nica-Bacaiteanu, Andor, M., & Dehelean, L. (2023). Untangling the professional work-related factors on the mental health of healthcare professionals during the late stages of COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 16, 2391–2404. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S424563

Madden, M., Kneavel, M., & Bowman, T. (2022). Lessons learned and potential long-term effects on athletic trainers and clinical practice after a global pandemic. Journal of Athletic Training, 57(11/12), 1111–1121. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-0541.21

Merriam, S., & Tisdell, E. (2015). Basic Qualitative Research. In Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation. (4th ed). John Wiley & Sons. 

Nowell, L., Norris, J., White, D., & Moules, N. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917733847

O’Connor, S., O’Connor, C., McCarthy, S., Singe, S. (2023). Perceived stress, work-family conflict, and burnout in Irish certified athletic therapist. International Journal of Athletic Therapy and Training, 28, 328–336. https://doi.org/10.11123/ijatt.2022-0094

Oglesby, L., Gallucci, A., Wynveen, C., Ylitalo, K., & Benson, N. (2020). Burnout and substance use in collegiate athletic trainers. Journal of Athletic Training, 55(7), 744–751. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-178-19

Oglesby, L., Gallucci, A., Porter, A., & Vineyard, A. (2022). Burnout in and commission of medical errors by secondary school athletic trainers. Journal of Athletic Training, 57(3), 234–239. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-630-20

Olmos-Vega, F., Stalmeijer, R., Varpio, L., & Kahlke, R. (2022). A practical guide to reflexivity in qualitative research: AMEE guide No. 149. Medical Teacher, 44(9), 969–977. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2022.2057287

Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods (3rd ed.). Sage Publications. 

Pappa, S., Ntella, V., Giannakas, T., Giannakoulis, V., Papoutsi, E., & Katsaounou, P. (2020). Prevalence of depression, anxiety, and insomnia among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 88, 901–907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.026

Parmar, J., Heureux, T., Lobchuk, M., Penner, J., Charles, L., Amant, O., Ward-griffin, C., & Anderson, S. (2024). Double-duty caregivers enduring COVID-19 pandemic to endemic: “It’s just wearing me down”. PLOSONE,19(4). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298584

Percy, W., Kostere, K., & Kostere, S. (2015). Generic qualitative research in psychology. The Qualitative Report, 20(2), 76–85. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2015.2097

Reardon, C. (2023). The mental health crisis in sports: The perfect storm of contemporary factors. Journal of Athletic Training, 58(9), 677–680. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-0484.22

Ren, Y., Liu, A., Zou, S., Ying, J., Wang, X., & Wu, X. (2024). Work and family conflicts, depressive symptoms and coparenting conflict behaviors: An interdependent approach. Child & Family Social Work, 29, 1022–1033.https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.13155

Rynkiewicz, K., Singe, S., & Eason, C. (2022). Athletic trainers’ use of support systems for balancing roles as an athletic trainer and parent. Journal of Athletic Training, 57(3), 282–290. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-0681.20

Sharp, M., Solomon, N., Harrison, V., Gribble, R., Cramm, H., Pike, G., & Fear, N. (2022). The mental health and wellbeing of spouses, partners, and children of emergency responders: A systematic review. PLOS ONE, 17(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269659

Singe, S., Asadpour, M., Caims, A., & Pitney, W. (2024). Bidirectional nature of work family conflict: Family interfering with work conflict among athletic trainers in the collegiate setting. Journal of Sports Medicine and Allied Health Science, 10(2), 1-19. 

Singe, S., Rodriguez, M., Cairns, A., Eason, C., & Rynkiewicz, K. (2023). Work-family conflict and family role performance among collegiate athletic trainers. Journal of Athletic Training, 58(4), 381–386. https://doi.org/10.4085/227.22

Singe, S., Rynkiewicz, K., & Eason, C. (2020). Work-family conflict of collegiate and secondary school athletic trainers who are parents. Journal of Athletic Training, 55(11), 1153–1159. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-381-19

Teo, I., Sung, S., Cheung, Y., Wong, W., Aloweni, F., & Ang, H. (2024). Burnout, anxiety, and depression in healthcare workers during the early COVID-19 period in Singapore. Medknow Publications, 65(13), S26–S29. https://doi.org/10.1162/smedj.2021156  

Torres-McGehee, T., Emerson, D., Moore, E., Walker, S., Pritchett, K., Smith, A., Lyles, T., Wakefield, G., & Ohlemeyer, K. (2021). Energy balance, eating disorder risk, and pathogenic behaviors among athletic trainers. Journal of Athletic Training, 56(3), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-0228-20

Vallone, F., & Zurlo, M. (2024). Stress, interpersonal and inter-role conflicts, and psychological health conditions among nurses: Vicious and virtuous circles within and beyond the wards. BMC Psychology, 12, 197–213.  https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01676-y

Vaziri, H., Casper, W., Wayne, J., & Matthews, R. (2020). Changes to the work–family interface during the COVID-19 pandemic: Examining predictors and implications using lateral transitions analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(10), 1073–1087. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000819

Yuan, L., Li, Y., Yan, H., Xiao, C., Liu, D., Lui, X., Guan, Y., & Yu, B. (2023). Effects of work-family conflict and anxiety in the relationship between work-related stress and job burnout in Chinese females: A chained mediation modeling analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 324, 309–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.12.112

Zhou, X., Yang, X., Chen, S., Wen, Q., Xie, F., & Zhang, S. (2024). Relieving anxiety and depression symptoms through promoting organizational identity and mitigating family-work conflict among medical professionals in digital leadership. BMC Public Health, 24, 3563–3576. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-20992-x

Zulkiflee, H., Rashid, W., Razak, N. (2024). Literature review on theories of work-life balance. Journal of Emerging Economies and Islamic Research, 12(2), 1678–1694. https://doi.org/10.24191/jeer.v.12i2.1678

Download

Share

COinS